Arctic and working abilities 

Samoyed 

"Polar characteristics"

The concept of polar characteristics came about in Sweden when the swedish breed club many years ago in the 1980s began to work on explaining in an understandable way to breeders and conformation judges why certain exterior details were important for the Samoyed dog as a polar working dog (which is described in the breed standard with the words "Arctic Spitz " and "sled dog"). The polar characteristics combined with hard physical work are large parts of what makes the Samoyed dog unique and sets it apart from all other dog types.

Read more about the common arctic abilities HERE....  

Read more about the common working abilitys HERE.... 

(The information about the polar characteristics on this site is mostly taken from the Swedish breed-specific breeding strategy established by the Swedish bredd club and Kennel Club. Sweden follows the FCI breed standard)

Breeding in large parts of Europe has been focused more and more on producing a "Flashy" show dog with a lot of fur and a "bear" appearance, instead of caring about the special characteristics that a centuries-old breeding of the polar people has produced. The correct breed type is more wolf-like than bear-like. Let us therefore pay close attention to the Samoyed's body and coat being functional for the purpose it was once intended for. The Samoyed's origins as a working dog should never be forgotten or questioned. It is a danger for the breed when certain characteristics such as "showy", soft and flowing fur become fashionable. When assessing the exterior of a Samoyed, the greatest importance should be attached to the dog's anatomy and utility characteristics, especially in competition assessment, and never forget that the dog must have the conditions to be able to pull a sled. The fact that the Samoyed is a beauty and a delight to the eye only makes it more appealing.

The breed type of the modern show-bred dogs in many countries rarely holds the desired breed type as their appearance has changed for the worse in relation to the breed's original appearance and the breed standard's description. To understand what the words in the breed standard actually describe, you have to do your homework and study the dogs that existed at the time the breed was established in the Western world and served as a model for the establishment of the breed standard. Today's breed standard does not describe a new look, even if the words and the way to describe the breed have been modernized, the intention was never to change the breed or to lose the traditional classic breed type. If you approve of a changed appearance, you should also change the name of the breed as it can no longer be seen as a Samoyed if the dogs have lost the natural and original appearance of the breed type.

Note that the comments that are linked to the breed standard are made based on the current FCI standard.

Above: Some of the breed's original Siberian imports, founders of the breed. From left to right: Houdin, Lobi, Antarctic Buck, Yugor of half way, Moustan of argenteau. 

• Coat - Double coat. The undercoat insulates, the top hair protects the undercoat.

Polar fur of the right texture and quantity. A fur that is too soft and woolly is devastating for the polar function. The polar adapted fur is neither particularly large, round nor voluminous, but thick and dense enough to protect the dog from the cold. The structure is bristly/straight protruding, here is meant the covering hair. The fur strands are hollow to act as optical fibers in arctic climates with poor UV radiation. A fur with the wrong structure and/or proportion between undercoat and top hair does not function satisfactorily in repelling snow, ice, moisture/wet and dirt. The cover hair must be hard and rough, almost a little oily to keep moisture away, and off sufficient length in relation to the undercoat, which otherwise easily absorbs snow, moisture and dirt. A coat that is too voluminous makes the dog easily overheated and can overheat during physical work. Herein lies the difficult balance as the dog must both survive and work in the cold. If the dog quickly warms up, endurance also decreases, while snow and ice form more easily as lumps in the fur and paws, which can give rise to physical pain. In the worst case, an unnatural heat generation can lead to overheating/hyperthermia. Specifically for the leg hair, it should be pointed out that it should be short and smooth to withstand snow and ice lumps in the winter. It must also not be too long or consist of too much undercoat which makes the leg hair feel soft and woolly as it tends to attract ice and snow clumps. The head hair should also be short and smooth. A problem we see today is that the short and smooth hair on both legs and head becomes long, soft and woolly. It should also be clearly pointed out that the Samoyed dog is not a clipper and trim breed. A Samoyed dog should never be cut or shaved in the summer in the belief that it will help it in the summer heat, it has the opposite effect as the dog loses its protective and insulating fur.

Above: On the left, correct short and smooth leg hair on the front side of the forelegs. Picture in the middle, incorrect leg hair, long and woolly. Picture on the right, incorrect wooly/soft fur that absorbs snow and ice.

Above: An example of when the fur is not only overly abundant but also long and droopy. This is a major fault in a polar adapted animal. It disadvantages the dog in work.

Above : One of the pictures from  "The fault finder for Samoyed" written by well-known conformation judges in the US, Dolly Ward in cooperation with M Fishback 1970. 

• Paws - Long phalanges (rabbit paw). Good bearing capacity on snow. 

As the function of a snowshoe. Large (not coarse and clumsy), strong, slightly splayed toes, as in a working animal. A round and small paw means that the dog easily sinks through snow and slush. A paw without elasticity and joint failure can give rise to unnecessary stress injuries due to poorer cushioning in the toe joints. The quality of the paw hair is of the utmost importance, it must be hard and brush-like so as not to absorb snow and ice lumps. Today, unfortunately, the vast majority of people who use the Samoyed in practical use when training for long distances or going on a trip in the mountains experience problems with ice formation in the paws. If this is the case with the individual you are dealing with, you should, from a welfare point of view, help the dog to physical well-being by grooming the paws in a way that protects it from physical pain. However, this does not mean that one can disregard the importance of working for better fur on paws and legs in one's breeding. The tread pads of a working animal must be tough and wear-resistant. You should be aware that all dogs have some problems with snow and ice lumps in special weather conditions, for example thawing weather. Today we see an escalating problem with round "cat's feet" (too short phalanges) which unfortunately are often also cut.

• Nose – Heat exchanger. A nose that is too short works worse as a heat exchanger. 

Wedge-shaped head with good muzzle length. The nose must never be short and wide. A muzzle that is too short can give rise to e.g. frostbite damage to the lungs when inhaling really cold air as it does not have time to be filtered and warmed on the way down. A short nose also impairs heat release and fluid balance in the body during physical work. The muzzle should be as long as the skull with a 50/50 ratio. It should be pointed out, however, that there are dogs with too small a skull, which when checked can give the proportions described above, but the muzzle may still be too short thanks to the fact that the skull in turn is also too short. Today, a long nose is unfortunately seen by many show enthusiasts as a cosmetic defect, probably due to ignorance of its physiological function. Often there are advantages to a long nose. Many mammals use their long snouts to prevent excessive fluid loss during respiration (R.W. Hill and G.A. Wyse: Animal Physiology, 2nd ed., HarperCollins, 1989). Many experienced Samoyed dog owners who use their dogs in practical use describe through their experience that dogs with shorter and wider noses often show poorer endurance and heat management during physical exertion.

• Ears – Heat Dissipation. Abundantly haired, mobile of medium size (the diameter of the base should be equal to its height). 

The ears must not be extremely large, thin and/or poorly furred, then the dog risks freezing them. But they must not be too small either, which is a growing problem today. The ears must be large enough and movable in all directions for the dog to be able to close them and fold them back in order to protect the ear canals against weather and wind (example in a snowstorm), and that they must be able to be directed in a natural way in different directions and pick up sound sources from all directions, an ear piece that is too small has a poorer ability to pick up sound.

Remarks with the above:

Perhaps it was not a very good choice to mention the ears of a Samoyed rather small at that time.Nowadays a lot of breeders are not able to make a good interpretation of the word anymore when they read the standard and breed to it.Compare the ears above and take your own conclusion. The dog on the picture at the left was one of the dogs who stood model for the first standard in 1909, so we should accept those ears as the one and only right ears for a Samoyed.

All things go by comparison ... even the word 'small' ... so it is wise to also have a very good look at the pictures!

To help you a little bit: underneath you can see from left to right: small ears (ChowChow), medium seized ears (Samoyed), and large ears (German Shepard).

And, what do you think now yourself when you read a Samoyed have small ears?

Above: Example of how the dog uses its ears to listen in on sounds from different directions.

Above: Ears that are correct must be able to fold both sideways and backwards, and be able to close so that they close tightly in a snowstorm, this will not be possible if the ears are too small.

• Eyes – Almond-shaped, deep-set (not protruding or round) and long eyelashes - functional in blizzards. 

Here we should draw attention to an increased problem with large and/or round eyes in the breed, as well as eyes that sit towards the front of the skull and are directed more straight forward, which is caused by a steep stop.

Above: On the left, correct eyes where you can also see the fat pads under the skin which protects the eye in cold weather. The picture in the middle also shows correctly positioned eyes where you can see how the eyes follow the shape of the wedge-shaped head backwards. In the picture to the right, we see a incorrect stop where the eyes sit against the skull and are directed more straight ahead, giving, among other things, a narrower field of vision. The too steep and clearly marked stop also means that ice and snow accumulate easily.

• Lips – Tight. Hanging lips pose a risk of frostbite.

• Tail - Profusely furred and reaching to the hock. Completely covered with hair to protect nose, paws and genitals in snow and cold.

The tail helps to warm up and filter the inhaled air when the dog is sleeping/resting.

• Teeth and Bite – Correct scissor bite and number of teeth. 

Strong jaws to be able to eat frozen food and big bone knots.

• Shape of the head - A polar adapted animal should have smooth facial features. 

Sharp edges or furrows (for example a too strong/steep stop) cause ice and snow to accumulate easily, which can lead to cooling of the dog's head, as well as icing of the head and face, for example a too steep stop predisposes to the accumulation of ice and snow. A steeper stop can also give an eye position directed more straight ahead as the eyes sit towards the front of the skull, which can give a narrower field of vision.

Above: On the left, a correctly shaped head with a suitably marked stop, short smooth hair on the head and a sufficiently long muzzle. The picture in the middle, a dog with many faults, too short and wide muzzle, too strong stop and too much and abundant fur down on head. In the picture to the right, we see a incorrect stop where the eyes sit against the skull and are directed more straight ahead, giving, among other things, a narrower field of vision. The too steep and clearly marked stop also means that ice and snow accumulate easily.

Above: Correct skull and wedge-shaped muzzle, tapering evenly from the tip of the nose backwards. On the head, you can also see the faintly marked forehead furrow that appears if the dog has correct fur over the hood.

• Proportions – Adequate bone proportions that allow free movement. 

A working dog must never give the impression of being low on legs, compressed or overly compact as this has a negative impact on speed, endurance and the ability to move in deep snow and rough terrain, the same applies to rough and heavy dogs which contribute to an increased risk of injury and increased heat generation during physical work and reduced endurance. We do not want the dogs to become coarser and heavier and this should be taken into account during breeding selection.

• Good leg length enables speed, endurance and enables/makes it easier for the dog to move in deep snow and tight terrain. The breed standard describes a more elevated dog type as it asks for the proportions more legs than the body is deep. 
• Athletic build with adequate bony parts. The Samoyed dog must be able to move easily and naturally in all gaits and changes of pace. The Samoyed must have a lacing gait in trot.

Rooting of the problems in conjunction with wear and tear damage caused by defects in construction lies above all in the accumulated proven experience, something that the majority of Samoyed owners who use their dogs in regular practical use attest to. A dog that, during longer periods of physical work, sustains stress and wear and tear injuries to a greater extent than average most likely has an unsuitable construction (anatomy/exterior).

Above: A male dog with to short legs but with a beautiful head and good coat. The standard says that the adult Samoyed should have slightly more legs than bod depthy. A short-legged dog is not a dog that is low in height at the withers, it is a dog has the wrong proportions between leg length and body depth. Even a large and tall dog can be low-set if the proportions are incorrect, the ratio between the length of the front legs and the depth of the body.

Above: This is a male dog who is SEUCH and won a lot in the show rings but unfortunately had to end his life too early as his body construction caused him stress/wear and tear injuries in the hinge joints due to his build/construction, an overly large, wide, deep and angled chest was, according to the attending veterinarian, the cause of the problems that arose. The vet also opined that these types of injuries were common in dogs with this type of chest construction. The vet compared this with Rottweilers who often suffer these injuries due to their large and heavy chest. In addition to the excessively large and angled chest, this dog also exhibits an overly compact and low-set appearance, something that disadvantages the dog's function. Both show judges and breeders need to get better at confirming the attributes that the dog benefits from an animal welfare point of view instead of what the individual man thinks it's beautiful to look at.

Above: On the left two beautiful classical type bitches with correct proportions and correct coat. On the right two male dogs of classic type with the right proportions and good fur. The male on the far right also has a very charming smile. All four dogs above exhibit a healthy athletic body and hold a good breed type..

• Wrists – Failure and stiffness in the joint during movement. 

Must be elastic and with good fall. Today we see problems with straight or overly bent/weak palms.

• Natural shedding periods - The Samoyed must shed its fur naturally. 

In the spring before summer, the Samoyed sheds large amounts of thick winter fur. The coat will be shed over a short intensive period where all the undercoat disappears. The Samoyed instead puts on a significantly shorter and sparser undercoat and dense outer coat, this is the summer coat. This too is a polar fetur. It allows the dog to survive and be active even during the warmer part of the year. The typical summer coat is still resistant to moisture and wetness and it must provide good protection against insects, therefore it must still cover the entire dog, including the belly and face. 

A Samoyed that does not shed its winter fur properly before the summer will not be able to work as a outdoor dog during longer hardships in the mountains, for example. It is important to understand that the Samoyed should shed in the summer and that this is correct for the breed. Unfortunately, the typical summer coat is often regarded to that the dog is "out of fur", and show people think it's bad and wrong just because the show judges unfortunately judge it as a fault when a dog has a correct summer coat, a correct coat for the season. It is important to learn to understand the summer fur. Regardless of the dog is in winter or summer fur the judges should be able to assess the quality of the fur, the fur quality is not dependent on the amount of undercoat but it is the structure that should be assessed. Both coats are correct depending on the season. When the dogs in a summer fur thrown out and belittled by judges at a show we risk breeding dogs that end up missing the all-important spring and summer shedding if our breeders systematically try to breed dogs that shed less during the summer months and are therefore more appreciated by the judges. This is an animal welfare issue as our dogs suffer if they lose their natural shedding.

Above: On the left a female in correct summer coat. On the right, a Samoyed on a mountain hike, this activity cannot be accompanied by a dog that has not taken off its winter coat.

• Stringing tracking movements – Low-energy movement pattern. 

As the Samoyed picks up speed, the legs are brought inwards towards a straight center line under the dog. The paws are set in grooves. With correct movements, this produces a V-shape. This lacing gait is important for endurance and is seen in most northern spitz breeds. This gives the dog advantages in tight terrain, on narrow paths and in deep snow where the dog saves power as both pairs of legs are not forced to break up the path and push the snow forward. Wide and barrel-shaped chests and wide hindquarters are today a problem in the breed as it has a negative effect on the dog's lacing gait and endurance in movement. Today, a problem is seen in the fact that the exterior judges largely judge the correct lacing gait and like to classify it as tight movements.

Above: On the left, dogs moving in deep snow. On the right a dog showing correct single-tracking where the legs move in towards a centered midline under the dog.

Above: A correctly built female with a good polar coat that moves soundly and correctly. The stride length is neither short nor overextended.

Above: A dog with an overextended step. It puts the front paw in front of the tip of the nose and the dog ends up very close to the ground. The movements can look flashy and showy but are often powerless as the dog puts more energy into overextending the legs and pushing the force upwards instead of backwards and into the ground and push the body forward. This is often caused by the dog being a little low on legs and too sharp in  angles.

• Vitality 

The aim must be high vitality in the breeding animals. A Samoyed dog must be vital and remain youthful into old age, which can be achieved by using to a reasonable extent some older animals in breeding, with documented high vitality far back in the pedigree and which have been proven to have been disease- and injury-free for a long lifetime. Good vitality within the breed is also achieved by using dogs that develop slowly and are not fully developed until closer to 5 years of age, as well as not using dogs that are "ready" early (mature for their age) in breeding as they may become overdeveloped in adulthood age. Although a female is ready to have puppies when she is 2-3 years old, she continues to develop, the same applies to the male dog. The dogs continue to develop every year, the bone structure widens (becomes thicker), the dog's weight and mass increase, the muscle mass increases and strengthens, the depth of the chest increases with the years, the width and weight of the head increases, etc. An early ready dog ​​means that it has an appropriate mass, weight, depth of chest, head, proportions, etc. suitable for an adult dog (4-6 years) already in the puppy years. These early developed dogs may continue to develop for many more years and many of these tend to become coarse, heavy, low-set (the depth of the chest increases with the years so the proportions change) and clumsy in adulthood. These dogs tend to end up aging prematurely. Selecting early ready dogs for breeding can lead to reduced vitality of the breed, as well as affecting durability under physical stress. Show judges should also pay attention to this by not awarding prizes to dogs that look far too fully developed for their age, tis because that winning dogs are often selected for breeding. Today, a growing problem is seen where conformation judges reward juniors and young dogs that show a mass and roughness suitable for an adult dog, 5-7 years.

• Stress and wear and tear damage 

The Samoyed dog is a polar working dog, which is why great importance must be placed on its anatomical construction in relation to the risk of stress and wear and tear injuries during physical work. This can be evaluated during regular physical work over a longer period of time. A Samoyed with sound construction should not show stress and wear and tear damage to a higher degree than average during regular physical stress over a longer period of time and several seasons. Through its construction, the Samoyed must be suitable for an active and regular outdoor life in the mountain, in the day track and during long hardships all year round in all seasons, and the Samoyed must also be physically suitable for other various dog sports. 

A construction that adversely affects the dog's ability to remain injury-free during prolonged regular physical stress should weigh heavily in the evaluation of its qualities as a breeding animal, since the Samoyed dog must first and foremost be precisely a functional polar working dog. The anatomical construction of the breed must never constitute a limitation in the dog's area of ​​use or in its welfare in all situations. Growth and development should also be taken into account here, as a Samoyed must show a continued durable construction even when it reaches adulthood (5-7 years) and beyond. Characteristics of the dog's construction that may cause an increased risk of stress/wear and tear injuries:

• Heavy/coarse dog (increased or excessive weight and mass in general in relation to its size) - Predisposes to wear and tear damage to joints and ligaments in general, and adversely affects endurance in work. 
• Rough and wide chests and front parts – Predisposes to overload injuries in the front part, the bow joint, elbows and wrists, etc. In a dog in motion, a lot of force and load naturally ends up on joints and ligaments in the front part. Wide barrel-shaped fronts also predispose to problems in that movements and inhibit single tracking
• Heavy/coarse head – Tires the dog during physical work. 
• Overweight (the dog is fat) – Predisposes to an increased risk of strain and wear and tear in general. 
• For straight or weak wrists/palms – Predisposes to overuse injuries of joints and ligaments in the wrist. 
• Over-angled or insufficiently angled front and back - Predisposes to improper loading of joints, ligaments and bone parts. For example, a too straight front or insufficient angles in the rear frame. Too strong angles between the leg parts means that the dog is forced to use more energy in movement to straighten and bend the joint, which makes it less durable and the dog gets tired more quickly. Among the show winners today we see many over-angled dogs. A typical spitz dog should have slightly tight angles. The function is governed by the laws of biomechanics.
• Overbuilt – Adds unnecessary weight to the front legs. 
• Low back (hunched back) – Predisposes to wear and tear of vertebrae. 
• Flat paws without failure of the toe joints – Gives poor shock absorption. 
• In or out position – Provides for wear and tear injuries. 
• Stands under itself in front – Involves increased stress on the front legs and front part.

When the dogs were studied and measured in Siberia by Russian cynologists at the beginning of the 20th century, it was noticed that the dogs were marginally a little higher in the rear than in the front, which was important to create a well-developed hindquarter that can generate power and speed.

A Samoyed should be a relatively lightly built and mobile dog, it should have good body control, be resilient and athletic into old age. It should be a little cat-like in its movements.

• Our dogs are getting heavier and heavier 

A subjective opinion in 2019 after the majority of breeders in Sweden followed discussions about the size and weight of the breed in social media has given an image that many dogs today weigh significantly more than what a Samoyed did in the past. The majority are the owners who state weights of around and over 30 kg. There seems to be a perception that the heavier and bigger the better. We also see in the show rings how the judges today demand more mass and weight in our dogs, which has a negative impact on breed type, endurance, speed, frequency of injuries and vitality. 

• The weight specification was deleted in the Swedish standard after the revision in 1976 (bitch 16-20 kg, male dog 20-25 kg, note to these weight specifications the breed standard of the time also allowed a higher height than today). Perhaps this is partly the cause of today's new problems within the breed. And today's ignorance of what size/mass a standard dog should have in relation to its size. Perhaps it was thought that the knowledge of roughness/mass for a standard Samoyed was so self-evident that this did not need to be specified by weight in the standard. 
• In the early English standard around 1912, the weight of bitches was given as 18 kg and males 22 kg. And in an article in the magazine "Country New ́s" April 27, 1928, which deals with the Samoyed dog and the Farningham kennel, it is stated that the weight of a Samoyed dog should be between 18-23 kg. 
• Mrs. Killburn Scott (founder of the breed in England) said at the time: "The Samoyed must never be as rough as a Greenland dog, if you perceive it as wrongly built (too thin in the bone structure) then it is probably right". 

Show certificates with workingtest merit requirements are a help on the way to minimizing the risks of dogs being awarded titles and merits at too young an age, as the polar dog tests require a minimum age to start. This reduces the risk of overdeveloped young dogs being awarded merits at a show based on the comment "it looks so ready for its age", how will this dog relate to the breed standard when it is an adult in terms of proportions, mass and fur volume? There will be more of all these parts during growth, the chest will be deeper (the legs will be shorter in percentage), the mass and weight will increase and the fur will increase in volume.

When the dogs become both coarser, heavier and more compact in body, they lose their endurance and speed during physical work. Both breeders and show judges should be aware of and counteract this. Our dogs must be allowed to maintain a light, flexible and athletic body. Also the classic breedtype is lost as the dogs become heavier, coarser and more compact.

The function and measurable requirements of the breed standard - Checklist  

(This paragraph is taken from the Swedish breed-specific breeding strategy established by the Swedish Kennel Club)

• Is it breed typical? Is it a typical spitz and does it have an arctic/polar appearence? Does it give the impression of being a working animal with a construction that favors speed, strength and endurance? 
• Does the dog match the description of the Polar characteristics. 
• Elasticity in the movements. Does it have the right movements that give the impression of being light and durable? The dog shall move effortlessly. The spine must be firm and still in movement. Nor should a polar dog move like a German Shepherd. Too long and prolonged steps without force against the ground tire the dog without getting anywhere when moving for work. 
• Polar coat, coarse spiky top hairs, not too big, round or long. 
• Beware of too large chests and front breasts, a typical tip should be slightly angled in relation to other breeds (source: appearance judge Moa Persson's lecture). Too sharp angles and too big chests disadvantages the dog in work, the dog gets tired quickly and gets injured more easily. 
• Beware of too much mass and constructions of heavy bodies, especially in the younger dog. Too much mass and body increases the risk of injury and predisposes to poorer endurance. 
• Strive for dogs of ideal size, however the proportions are the most important thing as long as the dogs stay within the standard.
• The truth about everything that is around is wrong! A Polar Samoyed should rather be a little wolf-like in type than bear-like:

1. If the dog is round, it is wrong

2. If the eyes are round, it is wrong

3. If the head is round, it is wrong

4. If the nose is round, it is wrong

5. If the ears are round, it is wrong

6. If the chest is round, it is wrong

7. If the fur is round, it is wrong

The truth about that everything that is round is wrong is taken from "The new Samoyed" written by well-known conformation judges in the USA, Bob and Dolly Ward. They end their book with this memorial note.

• Does it have the right proportions based on the breed standard?
  

1. Is the dog slightly longer than it is tall? 

2. Is the depth of the chest slightly less than half the height of the withers in the adult dog (over 5 years)? 

3. Is the muzzle about the same length as the skull? The nose should not be too short. The skull must also not be shortened in length. 

4. Is the nose wedge-shaped and ending in a point? The muzzle must not be round or appear to lack the final part of the wedge shape. 

5. Is the height of the ears sufficient in relation to the arctic function so that they can be folded down and reach over the eye? The ears must not be too small as the polar function fails.

6. Does the tail reach down to the hock? The tail must not be too short as the dog uses it as a heat exchanger and to protect the head and muzzle when sleeping in extreme cold. 

7. Is the stop typical of an arctic dog? Not too strongly or clearly marked when ice and snow accumulate.

• Is there a waist on the dog? "slightly raised abdominal line". The belly line should not be straight, which gives a round, bulky and barrel-like appearance, which has a negative effect on the dog's elasticity in movement and the athletic body. The dog's waist must be visible, there must be no doubt that it exists.

Valuable words from the breed standard: 

• Working dog (through its history description). 
• Sled dog (area of ​​use in the breed standard). 
• Arctic Spitz (Polar dog). 
• Medium-sized dog. 
• Endurance. 
• Strength. 
• Flexibility. 
• Wedge-shaped head. 
• Muscular. 
• Tireless. 
• Polar fur. 
• Proportionally more bone than body (high-set dog type)